یادمان باشد! بدترین نوع تلف کردن وقت آن است که کاری را که اصلاْ لازم نیست انجام دهیم به بهترین شکل ممکن انجام دهیم!

و تحریم  کردن انتخابات در موقعیت کنونی مصداق بارزی است از اتلاف وقت

2- روند تكامل پژوهش­هاي مهار بيابان‌زايي در مؤسسة تحقيقات جنگل­ها و مراتع

بر بنياد آنچه نوشته آمد، مؤسسة تحقيقات جنگل­ها و مراتع،‌ با افزايش اندوخته‌ها و تجارب علمي بدست‌آمده در طول 33 سال گذشته بر غناي نگرش كلان خويش نسبت به مسايل و چالش­هاي مطروحه در حوزة بيابان و بيابان‌زايي افزوده است؛‌ به نحوي كه هم‌اكنون مفهوم بيابان‌زايي (Desertification) از حالت خُرد و محدودِ آن كه تنها برخي فرآيندها و تغييرات بيروني ناشي از گسترش قلمرو فيزيكي بيابانها را شامل مي‌شد، فاصله گرفته و به هر نوع فرآيند كاهندة كارايي سرزمين در زيست‌بومهايي كه استعداد سكونتگاهي دارند اطلاق مي‌شود.

جدول 2- توزيع قاره‌اي درجات گوناگون تخريب خاك در جهان

                 مساحت: ميليون‌هكتار

برگرفته از: UNEP، 1997

چنين است كه دغدغة نخست پژوهشگران در اين مؤسسه، به عنوان عضوي از جامعة جهاني، شناسايي و مهار جرياني است كه تاكنون بيش از 5 ميليارد هكتار  يا 5/38 درصد از خشكيهاي جهان را با افت بارآوري مواجه ساخته و ارتقاء شاخصهاي رفاه انساني‌ي افزون بر 25/1 ميلياردنفر از شهروندان جهان را به طور مستقيم به مخاطره انداخته است. اين در حالي است كه تا چندي پيش ابداع يا ترويجِ پاره‌اي راهكارهاي مكانيكي يا زيست‌شناختي، براي تثبيت ناهمواريهاي ماسه‌اي از طريق بهره‌گيري از خاك‌پوشهاي نفتي،‌ بادشكنهاي گوناگون و جنگلكاري كه اغلب بر چارچوب تفكراتي مبتني بر مديريت سازه‌اي استوار بودند، عمده‌ترين جهت‌گيريهاي پژوهشي را دربر مي‌گرفت. ليكن امروز، اصلي‌ترين راهبردهاي پژوهشي مؤسسه تحقيقات جنگلها و مراتع در حوزة مهار بيابان‌زايي، بر محور ترويج مديريتي غيرسازه‌اي استوار شده است. مديريتي كه نيازهاي زمان را مي‌شناسد، محدوديتها را انكار نمي‌كند و با توجه به خواهشهاي بوم‌شناختي سرزمين،‌ مي‌كوشد تا پايدارترين راهكار را براي مهار جريانهاي پس‌رونده، در جاي جايِ اين بوم و بر ارايه دهد.

چنين است كه در راه حركت به سوي اين آموزة مقدس، هيچگاه فراموش نمي‌كند: «پايداري واقعي هنگامي تحقق مي‌يابد كه نه تنها فردفرد شهروندان جمهوري اسلامي ايران، كه يكايك آحاد جامعه جهاني،‌ از آمادگي فداي مصلحت فردي در پاي مصلحت جمعي برخوردار باشند».

خوشبختانه ارتفاع زياد فلات كوهستاني ايران، به همراه ويژگيهاي ناهمتاي پيكرشناختي آن، سبب شده است تا همواره منابعي درخور از آب سطحي و بويژه زيرزميني براي كشاورزي فارياب در دشتهاي بياباني ايران فراهم شود؛ به نحوي كه نام ايران به همراه چهار كشور پهناور ديگر، در شمارِ ممالكي در جهان قرار دارد كه در بيشتر از 20 محصول كشاورزي، جزء 10 توليدكنندة نخست جهان محسوب مي‌شوند.

و اما «بيابان‌زايي» مقوله‌اي ديگر است؛ چرا كه اگر آفرينش بيابان را پاسخي طبيعي به شرايط زيست بوم بدانيم‌، بيابان‌زايي را مي‌بايست بازخورد فشارهاي انساني و عملكردهاي نابخردانة بشر، بويژه در واپسين سده از هزارة كهنه قلمداد كنيم. بيابان‌زايي، فرآيندي پس‌رونده است كه تمامي مظاهر حيات را در همه اشكال خويش به نيستي تهديد كرده و پايداري زيست را خدشه‌دار مي‌كند. هجوم ماسه‌هاي روان، اُفت كمي و كيفي آبهاي زيرزميني،‌كاهش حاصلخيزي خاك،‌ افزايش حساسيت اراضي به فرسايش، سخت‌شدن و سله‌بستن خاك،‌ نشست زمين، شورشدن اراضي، افزايش سيل‌خيزي، فزوني مواد سمي در خاك،كاهش تنوع زيستي، تخريب پوشش گياهي و سرانجام برهنگي زمين،‌ قحطي،‌محو آبادي، مهاجرت و عقب‌نشيني ناگزير حيات، در شمار شناسه‌هايي جاي مي‌گيرند كه وجود هريك از آنها در هر منطقه به تنهايي يا جملگي، توصيفي آشكار از وضعيت كمي و كيفي بيابان‌زايي بدست مي‌دهد. از اين رو، نمي‌بايست پديده‌هاي محدودي چون پيشروي مرز فيزيكي بيابانها را، كه در نظر عوام برجسته مي‌نمايد،‌ با پديده به ظاهر نامحسوس، اما ويرانگرِ تخريب سرزمين (Land Degradation) يا بيابان‌زايي كه مناطق وسيعي از سطح زيست كره را پوشانده و در نتيجه زيانهاي اقتصادي و اجتماعي بيشتري را به همراه دارد، در يك رديف ارزيابي كرده و يكسان نگريست.

چنين دريافتهايي سبب شد تا در كنفرانس محيط زيست و توسعة سازمان ملل (ريودوژانيرو، 1992) مفهوم بيابان‌زايي تعميم بيشتري پيدا كند و به صورت زير به تصويب اعضاء برسد:

«بيابان‌زايي عبارت است از تخريب سرزمين در مناطق خشك، نيمه‌خشك و نيمه‌مرطوب خشك، تحت اثر تغييرات اقليمي و فعاليتهاي انساني»

از اين رو، آنچه كه امروزه از آن به عنوان يكي از مهمترين چالشهاي فراروي بشر در هزارة سوم ياد مي‌شود، جرياني است كاهندة كارايي سرزمين،‌ كه به دليل برخي ملاحظات فرهنگي و سياسي، مجازاً با عنوان بيابان‌زايي ناميده مي‌شود. چرا كه ترجيح محققين در به كاربردن اصطلاح بيابان‌زايي به جاي تخريب سرزمين، بيشتر ناشي از بار احساسي و قدرت برانگيزانندگي و اثرگذاري آن در مخاطب است. در واقع با اين تمهيد، سازمان ملل توانست بيشترين كشورهاي ممكن را در اين مسأله درگير كرده و بدين ترتيب مساعدت مالي و پشتيباني نرم‌افزاري جهاني را به منظور عمران اين اراضي جلب كند.

جدول 2، پراكنش درجات گوناگون تخريب خاك را، به عنوان يكي از اصلي‌ترين شاخصهاي بيابان‌زايي به تفكيك قاره‌هاي جهان نشان مي‌دهد.

در نقشه‌هاي پيوست اين نوشتار، وضعيت فرسايش آبي و بادي در كشور نشان داده شده است. همانطور كه ملاحظه مي‌شود، افزون بر 60 درصد از مساحت ايران در شرايط ناپايدار قرار داشته و حدود 95 ميليون هكتار از اراضي آن در معرض انواع فرسايشهاي آبي و بادي است.

1- پيشينه:

به موجب طبقه‌بندي‌هاي اقليمي، بيش از 47 درصد از خشكيهاي زمين را سرزمينهاي فراخشك، خشك، نيمه‌خشك و نيمه‌مرطوب خشك تشكيل مي‌دهند كه همة آنها را به اجمال «سرزمينهاي خشك» و در بيان عامه، برحسب خاستگاه گوينده، تمام يا بعضي از آنها را «بيابان» مي‌نامند؛ البته از نظر اقليم‌شناسان تنها سرزمينهاي خيلي خشك، بيابانهاي واقعي هستند. چنين است كه بيابانهاي اقليمي با اشغال قريب به نيمي از مساحت خشكيهاي زمين، وسيعترين زيست اقليم جهان محسوب مي‌شوند و انواع مختلف بيابان در سراسر كره خاك، بدون محدوديت عرض جغرافيايي، ارتفاع و فاصله از دريا استقرار يافته‌اند. ويژگي اخير سبب شده تا در اراية يك تعريف جامع براي بيابان از مفاهيم كلي و عموماً غيركمي استفاده ‌شود. نظير آنچه كه در فرهنگ جهاني « وبستر» آمده است: « بيابان، عرصه وسيعي است كه ميزان پوشش گياهي آن تأمين‌كننده حيات بشري نيست».

ناگفته نماند كه كمبود يا فقدان مطلق پوشش گياهي، به عنوان حلقة نخست زنجيرة حيات در خشكيهاي زمين مي‌تواند ناشي از نامساعدبودن شرايط اقليمي (بيابانهاي اقليمي) و يا نامساعدبودن شرايط زمين (بيابانهاي خاكي) باشد، كه بيابانهاي نوع اخير در آمار مذكور منظور نشده است. شايان ذكر است كه تلفيقي از اقليم و خاك، شرايط متنوعي پديد مي‌آورد كه سبب پيدايش طبيعي واحه‌هايي سرسبز در بيابان‌هاي واقعي، يا وادي‌هايي عاري از گياه در زيست اقليمهاي جنگلي مي‌شود.

جدول 1،  امكان مقايسة پراكنش زيست اقليمهاي خشك را در ايران و جهان فراهم كرده است. همانطور كه از اين جدول آشكار است، سهم ايران از مجموع سرزمينهاي خشك تقريباً دو برابر سهم جهاني و در مورد بيابانهاي واقعي نزديك به پنج برابر سهم جهاني است؛ واقعيتي كه شكنندگي و آسيب‌پذيري بيشتر ايران زمين را در برابر جريانهاي كاهنده كارايي سرزمين به وضوح نشان مي‌دهد.

 گرفتگاهان:

1.           احمدي، حسن. 1377: ژئومرفولوژي كاربردي، جلد دوم: فرسايش بادي. تهران. انتشارات دانشگاه تهران، شمارة 4035، 570 صفحه.
2.               احمدي، حسن. 1381: معيارها و شاخصهاي بيابان‎زايي؛ در مجموعه سخنرانيهاي روز جهاني مقابله با بيابان‎زايي(27 خرداد 1381). تهران. سازمان جنگلها، مراتع و آبخيزداري كشور، 7 صفحه.
3.                 اسديان، خديجه. 1365: جغرافياي ديرينه. تهران. انتشارات دانشگاه تهران (چاپ دوّم)، شمارة انتشار 1608، 244 صفحه.
4.                  بازلو، جان. 1989: جهان استيون هاوکينگ (برگردان حبيب­الّله دادفرما، 1372). تهران. شرکت سهامی انتشارات و آموزش انقلاب اسلامی، 195 صفحه.
5.                  باستاني پاريزي، محمّد ابراهيم. 1372: جامع‌المقدمات (دو جلد). تهران. مؤسسه فرهنگي و انتشاراتي معارف، 544 + 615 صفحه.
6.                  پوركمال، محمّد. 1349: گزارشهاي جغرافيايي، بررسيهاي كارتوگرافي در جنوب شرقي ايران. تهران. مؤسسه جغرافياي دانشگاه تهران، نشرية شمارة 2، 47 صفحه + 32 برگ نقشه. 

7.                 پيماني‌فرد، بهرام و عبدالرسول طريقي. 1351: اصلاح مراتع فرسوده از طريق بررسي فصل كشت، عمق، روش و ميزان كشت بذر نباتات مرتعي مقاوم به خشكي. تهران. نشرية شمارة 5 مؤسسة تحقيقات جنگلها و مراتع، 22 صفحه.

8.                 خسروشاهي، محمد. 1380: تعيين نقش زيرحوضه‌هاي آبخيز در شدت سيل‌خيزي حوضة دماوند. تهران. دانشنامة دكتراي جغرافياي طبيعي، گرايش اقليم و آب‌شناسي، دانشگاه تربيت مدرس(بهمن‌ماه 1380)، 206 صفحه.

9.                 خلدبرين، علي. 1375: ضميمة شمارة 20 از مجموعة تدوين تجارب تثبيت شن‌هاي روان و بيابان‌زدايي در ايران. تهران. دفتر تثبيت شن و بيابان‌زدايي، ص‌ص 343-318.

10.               خلدبرين، علي؛ رضا گنجی و محمود جندقی. 1364: نگرشی بر برنامه­های تثبيت شن و کويرزدايی کشور. تهران، نشرية شمارة 23 دفتر فنی تثبيت شن و بيابان­زدايی کشور، 21 صفحه.

11.               دفتر تثبيت شن و بيابان‌زدايي. 1375: تدوين تجارب تثبيت شن‌هاي روان و بيابان‌زدايي در ايران. تهران. سازمان جنگلها و مراتع، 343 صفحه.

12.                                     رحمانيان، داوود. 1378: کاريز و تمدن آبی در ايران. تهران. فصلنامة مهاب قدس، شمارة 6، ص­ص 35-31.

13.               عباسي، حميد‌رضا، محمّد درويش و محمّد خسروشاهي. 1382: گزارش نهايي بررسي عوامل بارز بيابان‌زا و تعيين سهم وشدت هر يك در حوضة آبخيز رود مند. تهران. موسسه تحقيقات جنگلها و مراتع (در دست چاپ). 

14.               علوي‌نژاد، منصور و داريوش بيات. 1366: طرح مطالعاتی تثبيت شن و کويرزدايی منطقة خور و بيابانک. تهران. نشرية شمارة 37 دفتر فنی تثبيت شن و کويرزدايي، 68 صفحه.

15.               فدايي، سيّد‌احمد. 1376: نگرشي به تاريخچه و بهره‌برداري از سد كريت طبس. تهران. مجلة آب و توسعه، ش 16، ص‌ص 99-94.

16.               فرهادی، مرتضی. 1380: تيلون­دادن، آرنگ­سازی و گير­ماسه؛ دو شگرد کمتر شناخته­شده در کشاورزی سنتی ايران. تهران. فصلنامة اقتصاد کشاورزی و توسعه، ش 33، ص­ص 294-271.  

17.               کوثر، آهنگ. 1372: بيابان­زدايي با گسترش سيلاب؛ کوششی هماهنگ. شيراز، مرکز تحقيقات منابع­طبيعی و امور دام فارس، 58 صفحه.

18.               كوثر، آهنگ. 1374: مهار سيلابها و بهره‌وري بهينه از آنها. تهران. انتشارات مؤسسة تحقيقات جنگلها و مراتع، شمارة انتشار: 150-1374، 522 صفحه + 16 صفحه ضميمه.

19.                                     كوثر، آهنگ. 1380: آبخوانداري. تهران. همشهري اقتصادي، ش 2467، ص 18.

20.               گريمبرگ، كارل. تاريخ بزرگ جهان، جلد سوّم (برگردان سيّد ضياءالدين دهشيري، 1369). تهران. انتشارات يزدان، 521 صفحه.      

21.               گزارش داداش­زاده. 1344: تثبيت شن­های روان در خوزستان (ارايه شده در سمينار گرگان)؛ از مجموعة تدوين تجارب تثبيت شن‌هاي روان و بيابان‌زدايي در ايران (ضميمة شمارة 2). تهران. دفتر تثبيت شن و بيابان‌زدايي، ص‌ص 74-63.

22.               لشكري‌پور، غلامرضا. 1377: فرسايش و پيشروي رودخانة شيله و نابودي درياچة هامون. مشهد. فصلنامة تحقيقات جغرافيايي، ش 49 و 50، ص‌ص 255-243.

23.               مشاوريكم. 1377: مطالعات طرح جامع احياء و توسعه كشاورزي و منابع طبيعي كوير سياه‌كوه، ريگ زرين و بخش خور و بيابانك. تهران. مؤسسه پژوهشهاي برنامه‌ريزي و اقتصاد كشاورزي، معاونت برنامه‌ريزي و بودجه وزارت كشاورزي.

24.               معتمد، احمد. 1371: نگاهي به انتشار و منشأ ماسه‌هاي ايران مركزي، ص‌ص 114-96؛ در مجموعه مقالات سمينار بررسي مسائل مناطق بياباني و كويري ايران (جلد اوّل). تهران. مركز تحقيقات كويري و بياباني ايران وابسته به دانشگاه تهران.

25.               ملكوتي، مهدي. 1381: بي‌توجهي به گزينة سيل و خشكسالي در ايران. تهران. همشهري. ش 2813، مورخ 27/5/1381، ص 9.

26.                                     ملكي، حسين. 1367: جنگلها و گسترش كويرهاي ايران. تهران. نشر آينده، 256 صفحه + 32 صفحه ضميمه.

27.                                     هدين، سون. 1910: كويرهاي ايران (برگردان پرويز رجبي، 1355). تهران. انتشارات توكا، 764 صفحه.

27. Moore, Peter D. ; Bill Chaloner & Philip Stott. 1996: Global Environmental Change. London. Blackwell Science Ltd. 244 p.

28. UNEP. 1997: World Atlas of Desertification. New York & London. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and Arnold (second edition), 182p.

۵.                      Conclusion:

Despite the number of human resources and facilities involved in the desertification control of extensive dry lands of the country, the considerable quality and quantity of activities carried out in research and administrative sectors indicate the hard work and cooperation among the experts and researchers of both sectors. More than half of the deserts of the country (more than 30 times of the sum of areas of 5 countries namely, Singapore, Bahrain, Malta, Maldives and Granada), have been included in the work area of administrative sector during the past 4 decades and in spite of its limited resources, the research sector have also carried out research in almost all work areas of implementation units with the purpose of inefficiency percentage reduction of administrative activities by implementation of 100 research projects. However, it seems that the ascending rate of the land productivity reduction process is proceeding with a considerable pace and the actions taken lack the necessary ability to hinder the desertification process. Some factors which have been effective in the occurrence of this situation are as follows:

                1)  Focus on preventive actions inside the natural limits of the deserts wrong attitude [1];

                2)  Domination of sectoral and centralized outlook regarding desertification control;

                3)  Excessive emphasis on structural management and boastful belief in engineering abilities in desertification control activities;

                4)  Downgrading environmental matters in administrative considerations of the country

                5)  Lack of unique guidance and coordination among organizations and administrative sectors of the country regarding desertification control;

                6)  Domination of attitude of crisis management in encountering natural disasters, especially droughts and floods.

[1] Effort for forestation of one million hectares of Yazd deserts or creating a green belt around the Central Desert (Sand Dune Fixation and Desertification Control Department, 1996), are examples of the said mistakes.

Important lessons and feedbacks:

            One of the most applicable achievements of the research sector which is being implemented now since 2 decades ago is called “Abkhandary” or “water table management”, the positive feedbacks of which can be observed in different desert environments of the country. Abkhandary is an appropriate indigenous and low cost technique that can change the disadvantages of destroying floods into a great blessing in at least 14 million hectares of lands of the country (Kowsar, 1995, 2001); a technique that is considered an example of discovery and taking advantage of the historical potentials (a means for realization of development) and has been approved scientifically and administratively by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United nations (FAO) as a solution to survive world’s 800 million hungry human beings from malnutrition (Malakouti, 2002); by absorbing only 7000 billion Rials credit and controlling 4 billion cubic meters of runoff water, Abkhandary can minimize the damages caused by floods and droughts.

            Another feedback of “Abkhandary” is that it can help to revolutionize the view points of the administrative decision makers in the field of natural resources; Due to this technique, today no one thinks of the 35 million hectares of sand dunes and desert sumps as desertification signs that should be eliminated. During the current decade, the desertification control activities are not delimited to 5 million hectares of deserts or even 148 million hectares (89.7 percent area of the country) of dry lands. It has been proved that desertification can occur independently in every environment with habitation potentials, any distance from the sea, altitude from the high seas surface, latitude or annual precipitation.

۴.                 Research and achievements:

Although, several organizations such as Tehran University Desert Research Centre of Iran, Oil Research Institute, Management and Programming Organization as well as several other higher education centres are active in this regard and have already implemented or are in the process of implementation of projects, but the achievements of Forests and Rangelands Research Institute as the main responsible institute regarding the conduction of plans and policy making of future plans will be explained briefly.

Generally, the research programmes which practically started with “Eroded rangelands improvement by assessment of cultivation season, sowing depth and the amount of seeds of dryness resistant range plants to be sown” in 1966[1], can be briefed in 7 groups: identification of the main soil and water resources, biological fixation of sand dunes, physical fixation of sand dunes, productivity and exploitation of deserts and barren lands, conservation of Saxaul and Tamarisk tree forests, consistency plans, and reclamation of arid and vulnerable lands.

The most important responsibility of the first group (identification of the main soil and water resources), have been provision of a base for identification of main critical regions of the country and the most important factors, affecting land productivity decline. The feedbacks of this group provide a great substantial and applied assistance to the planners and raise the level of success of the development plans. In this way not only the national resources are being conserved but also the declination of vulnerable environments of the country can be reduced. In this regard the achievements of this group are:

·        Identification of the ecological needs of some indigenous plants of dry zones in the country;

·        Maximum research efficiency assessment of the country in preparation of desertification maps by FAO and UNEP methods and information efficiency assessment according to 9 desertification factors;

·        Discovering the fact that the raise and reduction of soil salinity in Central parts of Iran, are often the result of transformation of soils salinity from medium to high;

·        Preparation of 32 morphometric maps of Gorgan-Rood watershed and efficiency assessment of watersheds slope measurement mechanical methods in comparison with other watersheds;

·        Discovering the fact that during 17 years of a 40 year period the central watershed of Iran enjoyed a relatively favorable climatic condition and during the rest 23 years had a tendency towards low to medium level desertification;

·        Discovering the most important factor for water resources quality decline of Salt Lake (Namak Lake) watershed;

·        Introduction of effective factors on soil granules consistency;

·        Discovering the fact that during a 30 year period, in most of the times the permanent flow of the rivers of Central watershed have been less;

·        Discovering the fact that 86.5 percent of the Northern Khorasan undergoes different levels of desertification and plantation coverage decline, with 46 percent and wind erosion with 5 percent have the maximum and minimum effects respectively, on the occurrence of this critical situation.

The main goal of the second group (biological fixation of sand dunes), is to find the most practical and simple way for controlling the movements of active sand dunes in dangerous and vulnerable regions of the country by taking advantage of plant species with minimum ecological needs and ideal for dry regions. The most important achievements of this group are:

·        Specifying the best time and place for plantation of Lotus tree specie in sand dunes of Khuzestan province;

·        Specifying sowing best time, spacing, size and age of seedlings and saplings           of                    ,saxaul and tamarisk trees in sand dunes of Sabzevar and Khuzestan;

·        Specifying the best method for Tamarix tree seed and seedling cultivation;

·        Specifying 80 centimeters as the best dibbling depth for sowing Tamarix, saxaul, Atriplex and Euphrates poplar trees;

·        Comparing the quality of pots for growing seedlings used in Sabzevar and Khuzestan, and suggesting plastic pots.

The plans of third group (physical fixation of sand dunes) were considered as applied-administrative. On the other hand the group tries to reduce the implementation costs of the desertification control plans and raise the success percentage. The following achievements are the main outcomes of the implementation of the said plans:

·        Selection of the most proper height and spacing for windbreaks to be used in Khuzestan province and comparison between windbreaks constructed in Khuzestan and Northern Khorasan (Sabzevar);

·        No mechanical structures construction in marn and vulnerable land;s

·        Calculation of the specific amount of runoff water current in lands with or without mulch coverage;

·        Resistance comparison of the clay, cement, lime and mixed mulches

·        Cost estimation of mechanical ecological methods and oil mulching

The most important outputs of the fourth group (productivity and exploitation of deserts and barren lands) are:

·        Recognizing advantages and disadvantages of cultivating market garden products in sand dunes;

·        Using pitcher irrigation for disposition of seedlings and windbreaks;

·        Pruning of Saxaul trees and recommending the use of the seeds as animal feed

In fact, several problems were brought forth after the extensive administrative action taken in a large area of deserts of the country during the past half a decade that this group came to existence to find solutions for these problems by the order of the relevant administrative organization.

The achievements of fifth group (conservation of Saxaul and Tamarisk tree forests) are as follows:

·        Successful cultivation of Sansevieria specie in desert environments of Central Iran;

·        Understanding the causes of Saxaul and Tamarix trees wilting and providing practical solutions to return lushness to the plants;

·        Comparison of the effects of different pruning methods;

·        Specifying the sand dunes height critical limit for the plantation coverage

It seems that the existence of the said plans was according to the needs of the administrating organizations.

The most important achievements of sixth group (consistency plans) are:

·        To find out the level of consistency of indigenous and exotic species appropriate for the different arid zones of the country;

·        Introduction of the most appropriate species for sand dune fixation purpose.

It seems that the main goal for existence and extension of these plans was to find ways for realization of the dream of “verdure deserts”; a goal that has lost its priority today and no urgency is felt for reaching it. However, in certain regions and for maximum exploitation of the sustainable potentials of the lands, the limited continuation of such plans is suggested.

            Finally a greatest volume of research has been implemented by seventh group (reclamation of arid and vulnerable lands) and some of the most important achievement and feedbacks of the forestation department depend on the activities of this group. For example:

·        Introducing “water table management or Abkhandary”, a simple and low cost, local method for flood control and returning life to the environments threatened by desertification

·        Finding out the Yazd-Ardakan sand dune extension reasons and their movement direction;

·        Suggesting integration and coordination of watershed management and sand dune fixation activities in Masileh watershed with the purpose of biological fixation of Tarsib area;

·        Suggesting to use plastic mulches in forestation and farming practices because of considerable reduction in water use;

·        Suggesting that the use of permeable polymers is not economical.

[1] Forests and Rangelands Research Institute Journal, No. 5 (Peymanifard and Tariqi, 1972)

۳.۲.                 Strengths and weaknesses

In some areas, hasty actions created some problems; For example, in Chah-e-Afzal, Yazd (Siah-Kouh Desert), forestation practices were not successful (because of not considering the salinity factor, ecological potentials and severe cold weather of the region); using oil mulches[1] increased the environmental pollution and reduction of number of animal life, increase in the amount of runoff water and preventing the region from taking advantage of the low precipitation (Rig-Boland, Kashan and few other places); the high density of the forest trees and bushes caused yellowing and wilting of saxaul trees especially in South Khorasan, Yazd, Kerman and Semnan and finally reduction of water resources; as a result of poor extension work in some afforested regions the forests were destroyed by the villagers for provision of fuel wood and finally plantation of few exotic tree species (i.e. Atriplex in Central areas, Pakistani Mesquite in Southern coastal areas, especially in Balouchestan), destroyed the indigenous species of the region and as invader plants accelerated the outbreaks of unknown diseases and pests. However, forestation had positive impacts in many other areas, and often the desertification factors (such as barren soils, immigration, biodiversity decline, land productivity reduction, sand dunes, infrastructure and population centres elimination, wind erosion etc.) were reduced or prevented. These successful activities put Iran among the 5 preeminent countries in sand dunes fixation activities that many countries such as Jordan, Arab United Emirates-Abu Dhabi and some African countries invited Iran to transfer its experiences in this regard (Khold-e-Barin, et al, 1985) (Sand Dune Fixation and Desertification Control Department, 1996). Till 1984, more than 1.5 million hectares of the whole 12 million hectares of deserts of Iran, went through forestation and sowing programmes, 500 thousand hectares of which with an average biological production of 200 kilograms per hectare was reclaimed and reached to exploitation stage, while average production in the rest 10.5 million hectares, despite proper precipitation, did not even reach 10 kilograms per hectare. This meant that the production potential of approximately 4 percent of Iran’s reclaimed deserts was almost equal to the production of the rest 96 percent. Such accomplishment in arid regions announced as a zero production potential zone by the international organization involved (UNEP, 1997), led to a more rapid extension of activities in this regard in spite of all constraints. It should be noted that actually the socio-cultural outcomes of the said programmes in most regions such as Khorasan, have been more than their economic values resulted from the production increase of the region, because these programmes raised the resistance level of the desert habitats against water shortage and drought and reduced the percentage of immigration and evacuation of villages. On the other hand, the desertification control activities in an extensive desert area of the country that needed considerable human resources during winter, when the farmers and stock breeders were free could reduce unemployment and increase their per caput incomes. Agricultural lands conservation, communication lines improvement, dust reduction, weather clemency, environmental improvement and reduction of lung diseases were other outcomes of the desertification control programmes. The most important proofs in this regard are the considerable improvement of socio-economic situation and natural plantation coverage of Abouzaid-Abad and Ali-Abad in Kashan, Imamzadeh Agha Ali Abbas in Natanz, Ardestan on the borders of Esfahan and Yazd, Khoor and Biabanak, Jandaq and Anarak in Naieen region and finally, Bord-e-Khoon and Shahnia till Badoleh and coastal Lavar (Boushehr Province) (Khold-e-Barin, et al, 1985, Alavi-Nejad et al, 1987, Abbasi et al, 2002).

So, during almost two past decades (till year 2001), the actions explained above was extended to 6.5 million hectares of deserts in Iran with more than 330 percent growth. The sowing and seeding activities with almost 450 percent and oil mulching with only 48 percent shows the most and the least growth respectively.

The deterrent factor in assessment of implemented plans is that almost all sand dune fixation plans and programmes did not have any comprehensive and formulated ecological assessment of the region; the justifications for the plans and their implementation methods were presented was general and stereotypical, emphasizing on sandy soil of the region and over-grazing which speeded up the movement of sand dunes. For example the same process of seeding could equally be used in clay pans of Yazd with a high percentage of clay and average precipitation of 40 millimeters per year and Sabzevar Dolat-Abad region with a productive soil and average precipitation of 200 millimeters per year (Khod-e-barin, 1996). In spite of the said constraints and technical failures, the possibility of socioeconomic outcomes of the plans is defendable and generally welcomed by local habitats.

At the end of this section, it should be noted that desertification control practices should not be limited to arid and desert areas, what is done during the past 5 decades, and despite several achievements in sand dune fixation, today we observe signs of desertification out of arid zones, the most important of all is the 900 percent increase of flood occurrences (Khosroshahi, Watersheds Assessment and Research Department, 2001) and soil productivity decline in more humid regions of the country. Tendency towards water table management (Abkhandary) of the regions surrounding the desert with high production potentials is a result of this new approach which will be fully discussed in research and achievements section.

به نظر می رسد اشکال بوجود آمده مربوط به سرور اصلی باشد.

1.      Administrative actions and their outcomes:

1.1.          First steps:

Although the first step of organized management of Iran’s natural resources was taken by the establishment of Forestry Department in the Agricultural Organization (ex Cereals) more than 64 years ago (1939 A.D.) (Yekom Consulting Engineers Co., 1998), a step that created the ground for the establishment of Natural Resources Conservation Unit of Forestry Organization; however, the most important action in this regard was taken after the establishment of Soil and Water Conservation Committee within the Natural Resources Conservation Unit by the pronouncement of the Minister of Agriculture of that time in 1958 A.C. The purpose of the establishment of the said Committee was to study the control methods for preventing wind and water erosion. (Khold-e-Barin, et al, 1985). Subsequently, in September 1959 and within the framework of SENTO Treaty (Department for Sand Dune Fixation and Desertification Control, 1996), the first core for the assessment of methods for sand dune fixation in 40 hectares of sand dunes of Hamidieh, Albaravayeh and Albaji in Khuzestan Province (Report of Dadashzadeh, 1965) was formed which can be considered the beginning of organized and continued actions called Desertification control activities. After the concrete evidence of carried sediments reduction and the sand dune movements partial stop, the activities continued more hastily and extensively under the title of Desert Rangelands Improvement Plan, from 1961 (Sand Dune Fixation and Desertification Control Department, 1996). The Hares-Abad, Sabzevar, Desert Rangelands Improvement Plan was undoubtedly one of the first famous actions taken which was successfully implemented in 100 hectares of Northern Khorasan deserts in 1965. It should be noted that at the beginning not only the habitats of the area but also the people involved were doubtful about the successful implementation of the this programme, but the return of plantation cover and animal life to the region, fixation of sand dunes and noticeable reduction of dust particles and the possibility of sustained living and agricultural production in such away that after few years it was called a “miracle”, led to the extension of similar activities to 13 other provinces and 120 implementation stations.

از ساعت ۹ صبح امروز سومين کارگاه آموزشی و مشورتی مربوط به طرح ملی: ارزيابی و تهيه نقشه بيابان زايی به روش فائو و يونپ با حضور مجريان و همکاران محترم طرح از استان های تهران- اصفهان- مرکزی- همدان- قم و قزوين در محل موسسه تحقيقات جنگل ها و مراتع برگزار خواهد شد.

پيشاپيش از حضور همه آن عزيزان به ويژه مشاوران محترم طرح: آقايان دکتر فرزادمهر و مهندس پاکپرور قدردانی می­شود. 

محمّد درويش

مجری مسئول و هماهنگ­کننده ستادی طرح

1.1.                 Cautionary evidence

Despite the intelligence and expertise of our ancestors regarding the exploitation of their fragile environment, other evidence and remarks of ignorance and unwise decisions of local governments regarding land use and desertification control exist that together with population growth, boosted soil degradation and extended the boundaries of deserts from their natural limits.

In 1903, in his book entitled: “The pulse of Asia”, Huntington wrote: “Today it is impossible to pass an army from the borders of Balouchestan” and refers to St. John’s words as: “In our time it was very difficult for Crassus to pass his heavy cargo and elephants from Hirmand river through an arid desert to reach Narmashir (Hedin, 1910)”. According to archeological researches carried out in Burned City in Sistan, the traces of a kind of 5000 year old wood termites and beetles were found on wooden furniture. Regarding the case that these insects usually live in warm and humid tropical forests, experts deducted that at that time Hirmand and Sistan region were green and covered with forest trees. Even recent studies show that due to erosion of soil, the present time cultivated lands and plantation covers are approximately 3 meteres lower than the cultivated lands of 3000 B.C. (Lashkaripour, 1998 referred to Sajadi,1995). Based on evidence found, The Burned City was inhabited for a thousand years and a probable reason for its evacuation (along political and social troubles) in 2200 B.C., was the scarcity of water resources and low productivity of the lands of the region (Lashkaripour, 1998 and Cultural Inheritance Organization, 1999[1])

Naser Khosro Ghobadiani (4^th Hejri century) wrote in his travelog: “We traveled from Shoushtar to Ahwaz in the shade of the trees and we never sweated.” But today in a place called “Abdolkhan” on the Andimeshk-Ahwaz main road, the sand dunes cover the road and other places such as Hamidieh, Albarayeh, Kambouyeh, Sousangerd and Azadegan Plain experience the same (Maleki, 1988).

And this is what happened to the extended plains of Kerman, Balouchestan, Fars and Semnan, etc. regions where famous European and ancient orientalists and explorers i.e. Herodotus, Lord Curzon, Holdige and Marco Polo talked about them as prosperous areas with dense plant coverage. For example in his travelog 731 years ago (1272 A.D.), the Venetian explorer, Marco Polo wrote about a city called Camadi, winter capital of Kerman, with castles and extensive orchards and prosperous economy; and 800 years ago Afzal Kerman talked about a city called “Qamadin” which is completely destroyed according to Bastani Parizi (Pastani Parizi, 1995). The Swedish scientist, Sven Hedin who traveled from Sabzevar to Mashhad 618 years after Marco Polo could not believe in what Polo had written in his travelog. Hedin wrote in his book: “Marco Polo described a 6 days trip in beautiful and green valleys and mountains with wonderful rangelands, fruit orchards and productive farms, while today the East of Sabzevar is a desert (Hedin, 1910)”. Of course Marco Polo’s descriptions of his difficult trip through Central desert of Iran and the harsh nature of the region with undrinkable waters were fully confirmed by Hedin and he concluded that the physical situation of the deserts of Iran have been the same since long time ago and it is because of the climatic factors of the area (Hedin, 1910). Skoland (1927) and Sikes (1930) continued the studies of Hedin and came to the same conclusions regarding the origin of the large Desert of Iran. Based on the information extracted from the maps of Ptolemy in 2 A.D., the name of the desert of Kerman in its present location (Dasht-e-Kavir) is mentioned Carmania Deserta, and even the location of Yazd city by name of Izetiche is mentioned in South East of Kerman (Pourkamal, 1970).

In another document, it was mentioned that during the reign of Torkan Khatoon (650-690 Hejri) in outskirts of Babak city (Kerman province), a garden with an area of 900 square meters and hundred thousands trees and an aqueduct full of water was built, of which nothing is left today. (Bastani Parizi, 1995). Even the officers of Nassereddin Shah Qajar, i.e. Firouz Mirza (1880 A.D.), described a region with excellent plantation coverage in their travelogs on Balouchestan (Bastani Parizi, 1995), however after that the condition of the region has been more agreeable.

As you see, the above mentioned facts confirm a continued reducing trend of natural resources of Iran; a trend that the interference of the natural factors in its occurrence or aggravation, regarding the short period of time in geological scale, is undoubtedly very weak.

However, only at the beginning of the 20^th century and especially its second half, the first organized movements with the support of the Central Government started with the purpose of better management of the natural environments of the country.